Research

 

When selective retrieval of memories leads to forgetting

The selective retrieval of some memories shortly after they have been encoded can lead to the forgetting of other related memories. Inhibitory processes play a crucial role in this effect. To facilitate the selection of memories to be retrieved, other potentially interfering memories are actively inhibited, which leads to a weakening of the representation of these memories and to an impairment of subsequent retrieval. Inhibited memories show less forgetting over time, indicating a weakening of inhibition over time.

Key publications:

• Bäuml, K.-H. (2002). Semantic generation can cause episodic forgetting. Psychological Science, 13, 357-361. view full text as pdf
• Bäuml, K.-H. & Kuhbandner, C. (2007). Remembering can cause forgetting - but not in negative moods. Psychological Science, 18, 111-115. view full text as pdf

 

When selective memory retrieval refreshes memories

When selective retrieval occurs some time after encoding and the encoded memories were therefore already subject to time-dependent forgetting, selective retrieval shows a second side. In this case, it improves the retrieval of the other memories. Context reactivation processes play a key role in this effect. Selective retrieval reactivates the temporal context during encoding and induces a restart of the retrieval process. The restart effectively rejuvenates the memories and makes them similar to what they were shortly after encoding.

Key publications:

• Bäuml, K.-H. T. & Trißl, L. (2022). Selective memory retrieval can revive forgotten memories. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119, e2114377119. view full text as pdf
• Bäuml, K.-H. T., Meixensperger, S. R., & Hirsch, M. L. (2025). Reinstating memories' temporal context at encoding causes Sisyphus-like memory rejuvenation. proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 122, e2114377119. view full text as pdf

 

Forgetting outdated memories

Replacing older, outdated memories with newer, more relevant memories is the key to an efficient memory system. Such memory updating can be demonstrated in the laboratory. After encoding some memories, subjects are asked to forget the (presumably outdated) memories before encoding some (presumably more relevant) newer memories. The cue to forget impairs access to the temporal context of the outdated memories at encoding and enhances the encoding of the more recent memories, effectively updating memory.

Key publications:

• Pastötter, B. & Bäuml, K.-H. (2010). Amount of postcue encoding predicts amount of directed forgetting. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 36, 54-65. view full text as pdf
• Abel, M. & Bäuml, K.-H. T. (2017). Collaborative remembering revisited: Study context access modulates collaborative inhibition and later benefits for individual memory. Memory & Cognition, 45, 1319-1334. view full text as pdf

 

Memory benefits of testing memorised material

Recall practice of encoded memories improves later memory for the memories compared to a situation in which the memories are presented again. Recalled memories show both less forgetting over time and less susceptibility to interference from other memories. Even the subsequent encoding of further memories benefits from such retrieval, making the retrieval exercise an interesting learning method for many areas of application.

Key publications:

• Pastötter, B., Schicker, S., Niedernhuber, J., & Bäuml, K.-H. T. (2011). Retrieval during learning facilitates subsequent memory encoding. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, & Cognition, 37, 287-297. view full text as pdf
• Kliegl, O. & Bäuml, K.-H. T. (2016). Retrieval practice can insulate items against intralist interference: Evidence from the list-length effect, output interference, and retrieval-induced forgetting. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 42, 202-214. view full text as pdf

 

Neural correlates of encoding and forgetting

When new memories are encoded in memory or already encoded memories are retrieved, certain brain regions become active. At the same time, changes in brain oscillations occur, which are often reflected in changes in performance in certain frequency bands. The brain regions involved and the effects on brain oscillations vary depending on the encoding and retrieval task and also differ between the encoding and retrieval of memories. Neural markers often correlate with an individual's memory performance.

Key publications:

• Hanslmayr, S., Spitzer, B., & Bäuml, K.-H. (2009). Brain oscillations dissociate between semantic and non-semantic encoding of episodic memories. Cerebral Cortex, 19, 1631-1640. view full text as pdf
• Hanslmayr, S., Volberg, G., Wimber, M., Raabe, M., Greenlee, M. & Bäuml, K.-H. T. (2011). The relationship between brain oscillations and BOLD signal during memory formation: a combined EEG-fMRI study. The Journal of Neuroscience, 31, 15674-15680. view full text as pdf

 

Memory in children and older adults

The memory performance of children and older adults is impaired in many ways compared to young adults. These impairments include a reduced effect of selective memory retrieval, inefficient memory updating and a reduced positive effect of memory retrieval training. These three impairments are most common in kindergarten children and older adults aged 75 years and older, while the effects in older children and older adults up to 70 years are often similar to those in young adults.

Key publications:

• Aslan, A., Bäuml, K.-H. & Pastötter, B. (2007). No inhibitory deficit in older adults' episodic memory. Psychological Science, 18, 72-78. view full text as pdf
• Aslan, A. & Bäuml, K.-H. T. (2014). Later maturation of the beneficial than the detrimental effect of selective memory retrieval. Psychological Science, 25, 1025-1030. view full text as pdf